The Chinese term does not contain the "fake" of the English deepfake, and de Seta argues that this cultural context may explain why the Chinese response has been more about practical regulatory responses to "fraud risks, image rights, economic profit, and ethical imbalances". While most English-language academic studies of deepfakes focus on the Western anxieties about disinformation and pornography, digital anthropologist Gabriele de Seta has analysed the Chinese reception of deepfakes, which are known as huanlian, which translates to "changing faces". In psychology and media studies, scholars discuss the effects of disinformation that uses deepfakes, and the social impact of deepfakes.
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There are several other suggestions for how to deal with the risks deepfakes give rise beyond pornography, but also to corporations, politicians and others, of "exploitation, intimidation, and personal sabotage", and there are several scholarly discussions of potential legal and regulatory responses both in legal studies and media studies. īeyond pornography, deepfakes have been framed by philosophers as an "epistemic threat" to knowledge and thus to society.
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Media scholar Emily van der Nagel draws upon research in photography studies on manipulated images to discuss verification systems that allow women to consent to uses of their images. Philosophers and media scholars have discussed the ethics of deepfakes especially in relation to pornography.
Theatre historian John Fletcher notes that early demonstrations of deepfakes are presented as performances, and situates these in the context of theatre, discussing "some of the more troubling paradigm shifts" that deepfakes represent as a performance genre. The aesthetic potentials of deepfakes are also beginning to be explored. Gingrich's discussion of media artworks that use deepfakes to reframe gender, including British artist Jake Elwes' Zizi: Queering the Dataset, an artwork that uses deepfakes of drag queens to intentionally play with gender. The idea of " queering" deepfakes is also discussed in Oliver M.
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Film scholar Christopher Holliday analyses how the switching out gender and race of performers in familiar movie scenes destabilise gender classifications and categories. Video artists have used deepfakes to "playfully rewrite film history by retrofitting canonical cinema with new star performers". In cinema studies, deepfakes demonstrate how "the human face is emerging as a central object of ambivalence in the digital age". Social science and humanities approaches to deepfakes
Academic research Īcademic research related to deepfakes is split between the field of computer vision, a subfield of computer science, which develops techniques for creating and identifying deepfakes, and humanities and social science approaches that study the social, ethical and aesthetic implications of deepfakes. More recently the methods have been adopted by industry. Technology steadily improved during the 20th century, and more quickly with the advent of digital video.ĭeepfake technology has been developed by researchers at academic institutions beginning in the 1990s, and later by amateurs in online communities. Photo manipulation was developed in the 19th century and soon applied to motion pictures.
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